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Key generation is the process of generating keys in cryptography. A key is used to encrypt and decrypt whatever data is being encrypted/decrypted.

Feb 01, 2014 I'm seeing key generation taking 20 to 40 seconds on Firefox for Android on a Galaxy SII. That's slow but I think could be dealt with by appropriate UI messaging e.g. 'Your keys are being generated, this may take several minutes on slow devices but will only happen once, thank you for your patience.'

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A device or program used to generate keys is called a key generator or keygen.

Generation in cryptography[edit]

Modern cryptographic systems include symmetric-key algorithms (such as DES and AES) and public-key algorithms (such as RSA). Symmetric-key algorithms use a single shared key; keeping data secret requires keeping this key secret. Public-key algorithms use a public key and a private key. The public key is made available to anyone (often by means of a digital certificate). A sender encrypts data with the receiver's public key; only the holder of the private key can decrypt this data.

Since public-key algorithms tend to be much slower than symmetric-key algorithms, modern systems such as TLS and SSH use a combination of the two: one party receives the other's public key, and encrypts a small piece of data (either a symmetric key or some data used to generate it). The remainder of the conversation uses a (typically faster) symmetric-key algorithm for encryption.

Computer cryptography uses integers for keys. In some cases keys are randomly generated using a random number generator (RNG) or pseudorandom number generator (PRNG). A PRNG is a computeralgorithm that produces data that appears random under analysis. PRNGs that use system entropy to seed data generally produce better results, since this makes the initial conditions of the PRNG much more difficult for an attacker to guess. Another way to generate randomness is to utilize information outside the system. veracrypt (a disk encryption software) utilizes user mouse movements to generate unique seeds, in which users are encouraged to move their mouse sporadically. In other situations, the key is derived deterministically using a passphrase and a key derivation function.

Many modern protocols are designed to have forward secrecy, which requires generating a fresh new shared key for each session.

Classic cryptosystems invariably generate two identical keys at one end of the communication link and somehow transport one of the keys to the other end of the link.However, it simplifies key management to use Diffie–Hellman key exchange instead.

The simplest method to read encrypted data without actually decrypting it is a brute-force attack—simply attempting every number, up to the maximum length of the key. Therefore, it is important to use a sufficiently long key length; longer keys take exponentially longer to attack, rendering a brute-force attack impractical. Currently, key lengths of 128 bits (for symmetric key algorithms) and 2048 bits (for public-key algorithms) are common.

Generation in physical layer[edit]

Wireless channels[edit]

A wireless channel is characterized by its two end users. By transmitting pilot signals, these two users can estimate the channel between them and use the channel information to generate a key which is secret only to them.^[1] The common secret key for a group of users can be generated based on the channel of each pair of users.^[2]

Optical fiber[edit]

A key can also be generated by exploiting the phase fluctuation in a fiber link.^{[clarification needed]}

See also[edit]

• Distributed key generation: For some protocols, no party should be in the sole possession of the secret key. Rather, during distributed key generation, every party obtains a share of the key. A threshold of the participating parties need to cooperate to achieve a cryptographic task, such as decrypting a message.

References[edit]

1. ^Chan Dai Truyen Thai; Jemin Lee; Tony Q. S. Quek (Feb 2016). 'Physical-Layer Secret Key Generation with Colluding Untrusted Relays'. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications. 15 (2): 1517–1530. doi:10.1109/TWC.2015.2491935.
2. ^Chan Dai Truyen Thai; Jemin Lee; Tony Q. S. Quek (Dec 2015). 'Secret Group Key Generation in Physical Layer for Mesh Topology'. 2015 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM). San Diego. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1109/GLOCOM.2015.7417477.

April 19, 2017 -- Do tiny pieces of DNA hold the secret to aging?

Called telomeres, these tips on the ends of our chromosomes are generating heated debate as scientists try to better understand their role in aging.

A book released earlier this year titled The Telomere Effect: A Revolutionary Approach to Living Younger, Healthier, Longer says our lifestyle choices affect our telomeres and how we age.

Nobel Prize winner Elizabeth Blackburn, PhD, and University of California San Francisco health psychologist Elissa Epel, PhD, wrote the book, which made the New York Times best-seller list.

“The foods you eat, your response to emotional challenges, the amount of exercise you get, whether you were exposed to childhood stress, and even the level of trust and safety in your neighborhood -- all of these factors and more appear to influence your telomeres and can prevent premature aging at the cellular level,” the authors write.

But some doctors and scientists argue the book is oversimplifying the science. And it comes at a time when researchers are questioning what role telomeres play in the aging process.

“There is no question that telomeres are part of the story,” says S. Jay Olshansky, PhD, of the University of Illinois, Chicago. “Are they the magic bullet that will allow us to live much longer? That’s the missing part of the equation that nobody can provide.”

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So what exactly are telomeres?

Much like plastic ends on shoelaces, telomeres protect the ends of our chromosomes that carry our DNA, or genetic material.

Telomeres wear down and get shorter over your lifetime, harming their ability to protect chromosomes. When this happens, new cells don’t replace old ones. Researchers have been studying whether this cellular aging is a root cause for diseases and other problems that happen as we get older.

In 2009, Blackburn was part of a team that won the Nobel Prize in Physiology for discovering that an enzyme called telomerase can help lengthen your telomeres.

Blackburn’s book delves further into the research around telomeres and what may affect them. In it, the co-authors make the case that while telomeres are just one pathway of aging, certain lifestyle changes might stabilize telomeres or increase telomerase and help prevent aging. The book says many studies show those lifestyle behaviors include diet, exercise, sleep, and actions related to chronic stress and mental well-being.

Among them:

• A small study found 45 minutes of moderate exercise, three times a week for six months “increased telomerase activity twofold.”
• A 2012 study found that sleeping fewer hours was associated with shorter telomere length in healthy men.
• Other studies show a Mediterranean diet is associated with longer telomeres.

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“Small things we do each day add up in their effect over years and years,” Epel says. “If we are on a path for a long health span, we are not wearing our cells out, but rather getting the right nutrition and antioxidants, some activity, some joy and satisfaction, and enough restorative sleep each night, so the telomeres are maintained over years and years.”

Epel says scientists don’t know how easily we can change our telomere length and whether changing it in the short term makes much of a difference for longevity. That’s in part because long-term studies haven’t been done.

“There are indeed no single studies that have shown that lifestyle can change telomeres and in turn longer telomeres can lengthen life span,” Epel says. “But as with any behavior, the longer we do it, the more we maintain the benefit.”

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Other experts say that except for a few diseases, like pulmonary fibrosis, most telomere research at this point shows only associations rather than direct cause and effect.

“We don’t understand how telomeres affect aging,' says Titia de Lange, PhD, a professor and head of the Laboratory of Cell Biology and Genetics at The Rockefeller University in New York. She’s studied telomere for 3 decades.

“Telomeres get shorter with age but this is all correlative, so it could be like grey hair: Yes, it happens but it’s not going to kill you,” de Lange says. “Basically none of the big questions have been answered. There is just a lot of correlative data -- some with dubious validity -- that so far has raised more questions than given answers.”

Mary Armanios, MD, clinical director of the Telomere Center at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, says the research community has more nuanced views about telomeres.

“It is not so simple that short telomeres are bad and long telomeres are good. What we are finding is that ‘middle-of-the-road’ telomeres are the best. There is also growing evidence that telomeres cannot be altered by environmental choices,” she says.

Armanios outlined this side of the research in a 2015 review that explained that longer telomeres also have a dark side: They are associated with the risk of several cancers. Like regular cells, cancer cells have telomeres.

She says that telomeres became a pop culture phenomenon because we can measure them. “The fact that they are measureable in contrast to other changes with aging has put them in the spotlight,” Armanios says.

But aging is complicated, and many things, including our genes and environment, contribute to how we age, she says. “A telomere-centered view is a very narrow way to look at human aging in general, and the picture is more complicated.”

Olshansky says the telomere story has “fallen flat” in our understanding of aging.

“Researchers believed for a while that this was going to be a magic bullet -- that if you could stop cells from losing telomeres the organisms could become immortal,” says Olshansky, a member of the board of directors of the American Federation of Aging Research. “It doesn’t mean there isn’t something to be learned here, but overall the aging process is not driven by telomeres shortening.”

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So how should you approach aging? While many researchers debate the role of telomeres in aging, they agree on the benefits of a healthy lifestyle.

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“There is ample evidence that lifestyle factors can mitigate the complex factors that lead to aging in general,” Armanios says. “Diet, exercise, stress reduction, enough sleep -- these things are good for all of us even though evidence that they lengthen telomeres is not clear in my mind.”

“The only equivalent of a fountain of youth that exists is exercise and diet and avoiding harmful behavior and risk factors like smoking and obesity,” Olshansky says. “If you are doing this, you are doing as much as you can to allow your genetic potential to play out.”